Authenticity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Authenticity - Research Paper Example To neutralize gender norms, most women deliberately assume traits related to masculinity, and hence turn away from associations with women sets that may be alleged as being separatist or divisive. Women should stop shunning particular jobs due to gender norms. Women should grab their papers and join the world of manly jobs. Look, for instance, at Hollywood, engineering firms and pilots – women have fit into these industries in style. What women need is to believe in themselves and avoid the cultural beliefs which do no good to them (Uhl-Bien et al., 2012). Managers should assist their subordinates in discovering their talents as well as themselves by being a role model to them. Being a role model helps the subordinates borrow a leaf from the manager. By mentoring them â€Å"be like me† helps in discovering themselves since they try to imitate their bosses’ style. Through close monitoring, the managers are able to know their subordinates’ talents, thus knowing where they work best (Lubit,

An overview of prevailing trend of Chinese hotel joining hotel chains Essay

An overview of prevailing trend of Chinese hotel joining hotel chains - Essay Example With the exposure to the foreign markets most of the single hotels are adopting the trend of joining the chains in order to get the advanced facilities with continuous renovation and updation. "Increasingly the chains are offering a better and better selection of services and products from around the world, which is rapidly exposing the Chinese consumers to products that they would otherwise not have the opportunity to sample." (Tibbits, 2003) "The growth of China's inbound tourism market appears to have matched its economic growth and has consistently outstripped the world wide average. Between 1990 and 2000, international visitor arrivals to China increased by an average of 11.8% pa, while global tourism grew by a modest 4.3% pa. During 2001, the disparity was magnified. In the face of a global decline of 1.3%, international visitor arrivals to China increased by 6.7% to reach 89.0 million. This growth continued into the first six months of 2002, with international arrivals increasing by 9.4% over the six months to June 2001. The World Tourist Organisation recently announced that China was set to overtake Italy, US, Spain and France and become the top destination by 2020, attracting 130 million international visitors" (Jones Lang LaSalle Hotels, October 2002) Most of the hotels in China are undergoing the process of management improvement. The new techniques of planning by objectives and improved decision making are being implemented by following the lines of the foreign hotels in order to achieve the competitive edge among the industry participants. Another trend, which is gaining popularity in the industry, is the collaborative projects and ventures of the domestic and foreign hotels proving fruitful for both. The foreign personnel trains the trains the domestic employees about the modern techniques on the other hand the local hotel facilitates environmental and legal adjustments of the foreign hotels in the market. The Chinese regulatory bodies have opened the hospitality industry for the foreign hotels but restricted them to the level of 3 star hotels in order to save the domestic hotels having weak position (Jones Lang LaSalle Hotels, October 2002). But with encouraging the foreign hotels to support the domestic hotels the Government has taken cautious measures to limit the role of the foreign hotels to effect the tourism market of the country. Most of the Chinese single hotels are joining into hotel chains in order to undertake better development and provision of strong financial back up in order to respond to the competition posed by the foreign hotels laced with most advanced facilities management and booking system. Most of the single hotels need to undertake strong and aggressive strategic steps to keep themselves present in the market. This surge of drastic steps forces them to affiliate with the foreign large hotel chain such as Six continents, which are the symbol of aggressive and effective strategies. The adoption of the pattern of joining the hotel chain by the single hotels in China has lead to the domination of the large international hotel chain domination in the

Types of schools Essay Example for Free

Types of schools Essay 1. Community Schools Run by LA’s who own both the land and buildings and are responsible for employing the staff. The LA decides the schools’ admissions criteria for the allocation of places should the school be oversubscribed. These schools are supported by the community and as such the school facilities are used by local groups such as adult education and childcare classes. 2. Foundation and Trust schools Foundation schools are run by their own governing body who employ the staff and determine the admissions policy in conjunction with the LA. The governing body (or charitable foundation) owns the school and the land. A Trust School is a type of foundation school but forms a charitable Trust with an outside partner such as business or education charity whose aim is to raise standards and new ways of working. They buy in support services for Speech and Language, Educational Psychologists etc. The decision to become a Trust school is taken by the governing body in consultation with the parents. see more:examples of school facilities 3. Specialist Schools These schools operate in partnership with private-sector sponsors and within the requirements of the National Curriculum. They apply for specialist status to develop in one or two specialisms music, sport, languages, science, arts, business and enterprise, mathematics and computing, technology, applied learning, engineering, humanities and receive additional government funding for doing so. They are usually secondary schools but not necessarily SEN schools although SEN schools can become a specialist school  under one of the four areas of the SEN Code of Practice communication and interaction, Cognition (understanding) and learning, behaviour, emotional and social development, sensory and/or physical needs. 4. Voluntary-aided Religious or ‘faith’ schools but all can apply for a place. Run in the same way as Foundation schools but the land is usually owed by a religious organisation or charity. The governing body contributes to the building and maintenance costs employs the school’s staff and set the admissions criteria. These schools are funded partly by the governing body, by a charity and partly by the LA who also provides additional support services. 5. Voluntary-controlled Similar to voluntary aided but run by the LA who sets the admissions criteria and employs the school’s staff. The school land and buildings are normally owned by a charity, often a religious organisation which will also appoint some of the members of the governing body. 6. Independent Schools Not run by LA but funded by fees paid by parents and income from investments. They must be registered with the DfE and their standards are monitored by OfSTED or by an inspectorate approved by the Secretary of State. They set their own admissions policies and curriculum (they do not follow the National Curriculum). Teachers working in Independent schools do not have to be qualified. 7. Academies Sponsored, publicly-funded independent schools. Sponsors come from a wide range of backgrounds such as successful schools, businesses, charities, universities and faith bodies. Sponsors, are however, accountable for improving the performance of their schools. Although Academies have a close link with the LA they are not controlled or maintained by them and benefit from greater freedom than State schools to set their own pay and conditions for staff. They have freedom on how to deliver the curriculum and freedom to change the lengths of terms and school days. Identify the school you work in, state which type of school it is, and the age-range of the pupils. Swiss Garden, Shoreham-By-Sea is a ‘community school’ with approximately 410 pupils from the age of four to eleven years of age.

Cassava Brown Streak Virus Infection Genome

Cassava Brown Streak Virus Infection Genome Genome-wide prediction and association analysis for sensitivity to cassava brown streak virus infection in Cassava Siraj Ismail Kayondo, Dunia Pino Del Carpio, Roberto Lozano, Alfred Ozimati, Marnin Wolfe, Yona Baguma, Vernon Gracen, Offei Samuel,  Robert Kawuki  and Jean-Luc Jannink ABSTRACT Cassava (manihot esculenta Crantz), a key carbohydrate source faces unprecedented challenge of viral diseases importantly, cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) and cassava mosaic disease (CMD). The economic parts of the crop are rendered unmarketable by these viral diseases resulting into mega fiscal setbacks. The remarkable completion of the cassava genome sequence equips cassava breeders with more precise selection strategies to offer superior varieties with both farmer and industry preferred traits. This article reports genomic segments associated to foliar and root CBSV sensitivity measured at different growth stages and environmental conditions. We identified significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated to CBSV sensitivity in cassava on chromosome 4 and 11. The significantly associated regions on chromosome 4 co-localises with a Manihot glaziovii introgression from the wild progenitors. While significant SNPs markers on chromosome 11 are in linkage disequilibrium (LD) with a cluster of nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat (NBS-LRR) proteins encoded by disease resistance genes in plants. Genotype by environmental interactions were significant since SNP marker effects differed across environments and years. Key words: Genome-wide association studies (GWAS), virus sensitivity, augmented designs, de-regressed best linear unbiased Predictions (dr-BLUPs), NBS-LRR proteins, QTLs    INTRODUCTION Cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz), is a major source of income and dietary calories for over a billion lives across the globe especially in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA). Edge cutting technologies are rapidly turning cassava into an industrial crop especially tapping into its unique starch qualities hence opening new income opportunities for the poor (Pà ©rez et al., 2011). Cassava brown streak virus disease (CBSD), a leading viral constraint limiting production across SSA is responsible for mega fiscal setbacks estimated at 100 US million dollars per annum at physiological maturity (ASARECA:, 2013; Ndunguru et al., 2015). As a consequence of CBSVs, cassava yields were recorded to be eight times lower than the expected yield potential in Uganda(). Two major strains; Cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) and Uganda Cassava brown streak virus (UCBSV), have successfully colonized both the lowland and highland altitudes across East Africa though newer strains are being reported (Winter et al., 2010; Ndunguru et al., 2015; Alicai et al., 2016a). In addition to uncontrolled exchange of infected cassava steaks among cassava farmers across porous borders, the African whitefly (Besimia tobaci) stands out as the famous semi-persistent virus transmitter under field conditions (Legg et al., 2014; McQuaid et al., 2015). Upon entry, the virus exploits the plants transport system to traverse the susceptible cassava plant resulting into yellow chlorotic vein clearing patterns along minor veins of the leaves. Prominent brown elongated lesions are formed on the stem commonly referred to as brown streaks. While the brown necrotic hard-corky layers are randomly formed in the root cortex of most susceptible cassava clones. In view of the rapid but steadily virus evolution rates and the insufficiency of dependable virus diagnostic tools (Alicai et al., 2016b), breeding for durable CBSD resistance emerges as a timely and economically viable option. Earlier CBSD resistance breeding initiatives have highlighted its polygenic but recessive nature of inheritance in both intraspecific and interspecific cassava hybrids (Nichols, 1947; Hillocks and Jennings, 2003; Munga, 2008; Kulembeka, 2010). The rate of progress to genetic improvement in a traditional cassava breeding pipeline has been slower due to several biology-related opportunities like; shy flowering, length of breeding cycle, limited genetic diversity and slow rate of multiplication of planting materials. Most of the available elite cassava lines have exhibited some level of sensitivity to CBSVs ranging from mild sensitivity total susceptibility. Therefore, a concise but then targeted exploration for potential sources of resistance using the available biotechnology tools could be a promising strategy. The remarkable completion of the cassava genome sequence equips cassava breeders with more precise selection strategies to offer superior varieties with both farmer and industry preferred traits. A study by Bredeson et al., (2016) reports the presence of introgressions segments from the wild progenitors into the elite breeding lines developed by the Amani breeding program in Tanzania. Hence, resistance sources to CBSD exist but may have been reshuffled over generations of recurrent selection thus not fully fixed and need to be exploited. Moving forward, a genome wide survey for existing natural variations as explained by the observed phenotypes for a given series of agronomic traits could facilitate identification of causal loci associated with the inheritance of a trait of interest. This tool, commonly referred to as genome-wide association study (GWAS) exploits the power of statistical analyses to identify such historical recombination events that have occurred over time (Jannink and Walsh, 2002; Hamblin, Buckler and Jannink, 2011). Hence, GWA-studies will complement bi-parental mapping efforts that have been widely applied in cassava breeding in the previous decade (Ferguson et al., 2012; Ceballos et al., 2015). GWA-studies have been widely undertaken by animal, human and plant geneticists to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) in close association to several important traits. However, GWAS has been thinly applied in cassava breeding especially in the definition of the genetic architecture of cassava mosaic di sease (Wolfe et al., 2016) and beta carotene (unpublished). In this study, we exploited the reduced genotyping costs using genotyping by sequencing (GBS) to genotype data for our association mapping panel. The goal of this study was to identify genomic regions closely associated with sensitivity to CBSV infection in a diverse regional cassava breeding panel. Fine mapping around the identified regions would guide in marker discovery as well as identification of franking genes for CBSV sensitivity for marker assisted breeding. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant material The data set comprised of field disease evaluations undertaken across five locations; Namulonge, Kamuli, Serere, Ngetta and Kasese in Uganda. Two different but closely related GWAS panels were evaluated across environments. Between 2012 and 2013, GWAS panel 1 consisted of between 308 to 429 entries that were replicated twice across three locations. Each trial was designed as a randomized complete block (RCB) with two-row plots of five plants each at a spacing of 1 meter by 1 meter. In 2015, GWAS panel 2 consisting of entries ranging from 715 to 872 clones was evaluated in three locations but contrasting sites for CBSD pressure. These entries were evaluated as single entries per site being connected by six common checks in an augmented completely randomized block design with 38 blocks per site (Federer, Nguyen and others, 2002; Federer and Crossa, 2012). The two GWAS panels had one location in common; Namulonge that is regarded as the CBSD hot spot with the highest CBSD pressure. The data was generated from 1281 cassava clones developed through three cycles of genetic recombination with local elite lines by the National root crops breeding program at NaCRRI. These cassava clones had a diverse genetic background whose pedigree could be traced back to introductions from international institute for tropical agriculture (IITA), International center for tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and Tanzania[KI1] breeding program (sup.fig1). Phenotyping protocol for CBSV sensitivity   Ã‚   The key traits were CBSD severity and incidence scored at 3, 6, and 9 months after planting (MAP) for foliar and 12 MAP for root symptoms respectively. CBSD severity was measured based on a 5 point scale with a score of 1 implying asymptomatic conditions and a score 5 implying over 50% leaf vain clearing under foliar symptoms. However, at 12 MAP a score of 5 implies over 50% of root-core being covered by a necrotic corky layer. (fig.1) Clones were classified with a score of 5 if pronounced vein clearing at major leaf veins were jointly displayed with brown streaks on the stems and shoot die-back that appeared as a candle-stick. Clones with 31 40% leaf vein clearing together with brown steaks at the stems were classified under score 4. A Score of 3 was assigned to clones with 21 30% leaf vein clearing with emerging brown streaks on the stems. While a score of 2 was assigned to clones that only displayed 1 20% leaf vein clearing without any visible brown streak symptoms on the stems. Plants classified with a score of 1 showed no visible sign of leaf necrosis and brown streaks on the stems. On the other hand, root symptoms were also classified into 5 different categories based on a 5 point standard scale. Two-stage genomic analyses For the panel 1 which was designed as a randomized complete block (RCB) we fit the model: , using the lmer function from the lme4 R package (Bates et al., 2015).In this model, ÃŽÂ ² included a fixed effect for the population mean and location. The incidence matrix Zclone and the vector c represent a random effect for clone and I represent the identity matrix. The range variable, which is the row or column along which plots are arrayed, is nested in location-rep and is represented by the incidence matrix Zrange(loc.) and random effects vector .Block effects were nested in ranges and incorporated as random with incidence matrix Zblock(range) and effects vector . Residuals were fit as random, with . For panel 2, which followed an augmented design, we fit the model Where y was the vector of raw phenotypes, ÃŽÂ ² included a fixed effect for the population mean and location with checks included as a covariate, The incidence matrix Zclone and the vector c are the same as above and the blocks were also modeled with incidence matrix and b represents the random effect for block. The best linear predictors (BLUPs) of the clone effect (Ć°) were extracted as de-regressed BLUPS following the formula: Broad sense heritability was calculated using variance components extracted from the two step lmer output. SNP-based heritability was calculated by extracting the variance components from the output obtained by fitting the SNPs as a kinship covariate calculated using the A.mat function from the rrBLUP R package and included in a one step model using the emmreml function from the EMMREML R package (Akdemir and Okeke, 2015). DNA preparation and Genotyping by sequencing (GBS) All cassava clones included in the phenotypic data set had their total genomic DNA extracted from young tender leaves according to standard procedures using the DNAeasy plant mini extraction kit (Qiagen, 2012). Genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) (Elshire et al., 2011) libraries were constructed using the ApeKI restriction enzyme as used before (Hamblin Rabbi, 2014). Marker genotypes were called using TASSEL GBS pipeline V4 (Glaubitz et al., 2014) after aligning the reads to the Cassava v6 reference genome (Phytozome 10.3; http://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov) (International Cassava Genetic Map Consortium, 2014; Prochnik et al., 2012). Variant Calling Format (VCF) files were generated for each chromosome. Markers with more than 60% missing calls were removed. Genotypes with less than 5 reads were masked before imputation. Additionally, only biallelic SNP markers were considered for further steps. The marker dataset consisted of a total of 173,647 SNP bi-allelic markers called for 986 individuals. This initial dataset was imputed using Beagle 4.1 (Browning and Browning, 2016). After the imputation 63,016 SNPs had an AR2 (Estimated Allelic r-squared) higher than 0.3 and were kept for analysis; from these, 41,530 had a minor allele frequency (MAF) higher than 0.01 in our population. Dosage files for this final dataset were generated and used for both GWAS and GS. Structure and Genetic stratification analysis The extent of phylogenetic relationship and degree of family relatedness within the cassava lines was assessed using principal component analysis (PCA) implemented in R. Genome-wide association analysis for CBSV sensitivity The input binary PED files were prepared from the genotype dosage files using PLINK version 1.07 (Renterà ­a, Cortes and Medland, 2013; Purcell et al., 2007). Mixed linear modal association analysis (MLMA) implemented by GCTA version 1.26.0 was used to generated GWAS results (Yang et al., 2011). MLMA was implemented such that in every cycle of analysis, the chromosome on which the candidate SNPs existed got excluded from the GRM calculation using the modal in equation 3. Where y is the phenotype, a is being the mean term, b being the fixed additive effects of the candidate SNP being tested for association, x being the SNP genotype indicator variable and g is the accumulated effect of all SNPs excluding those where the candidate SNP is located making our analysis model more powerful. We estimated variance components using restricted maximum likelihood (REML). Sub population stratification was corrected for by taking GRM as a random effect term in the model during analysis. A more conservative Bonferroni correction method was used to fix genome-wide significance threshold at Pà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤10-7 as a way of correcting for experimental-wise error. Manhattan and Quantile Quantile plots for all the traits were constructed using R package qqman package implemented in R (Turner, 2014). Genomic prediction models GBLUP. In this prediction model the GEBVs are obtained by assuming , where is the additive genetic variance, and K is the symmetric genomic realized relation matrix based on GBS SNP marker dosages. The genomic relationship matrix used was constructed using the function A.mat in the R package rrBLUP(Endelman, 2011) and follows the formula of VanRaden (2008), method two. GBLUP predictions were made with the function emmreml in the R package EMMREML (Akdemir and Okeke, 2015). RKHS. Unlike GBLUP for RKHS we use a Gaussian kernel function: , where Kij is the measured relationship between two individuals, dij is their euclidean genetic distance based on marker dosages and ÃŽÂ ¸ is a tuning (bandwidth) parameter that determines the rate of decay of correlation among individuals. This function is nonlinear therefore the kernels used for RKHS can capture non-additive as well as additive genetic variation. To fit a multiple-kernel model with six covariance matrices we used the emmremlMultiKernel function in the EMMREML package, with the following bandwidth parameters: 0.0000005, 0.00005, 0.0005, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05 (Multi-kernel RKHS) and allowed REML to find optimal weights for each kernel.For the optimal kernel RKHS we used the kernel weights assigned by emmremlMultiKernel in the first step to construct a single kernel that is the weighted average of the original six. We then used this optimal kernel in single-kernel predictions. Bayesian maker regressions.We tested four Bayesian prediction models: BayesCpi (Habier et al., 2011), the Bayesian LASSO (BL; Park and Casella, 2008), BayesA, and BayesB (Meuwissen, Hayes and Goddard, 2001). The Bayesian models we tested allow for alternative genetic architectures by differential shrinkage of marker effects. We performed Bayesian predictions with the R package BGLR (Pà ©rez and De Los Campos, 2014) Random Forest. Random forest (RF) is a machine learning method used for regression and classification (Strobl et al. 2009, Breiman 2001). Random forest regression with marker data has been shown to capture epistatic effects and has been successfully used for prediction (Sakar et al 2015, Heslot et al 2012, Charmet et al 2014, Spindel et al 2015, Breiman, et al 2001, Michaelson et al 2010, Motsinger-Reif et al 2008). We implemented RF using the randomForest package in R (Liaw and Wiener 2002) with the parameter, ntree set to 500 and the number of variables sampled at each split (mtry) equal to 300. Multikernel GBLUP We followed a multikernel approach by fitting three kernels constructed with SNPs with MAF> 0.01 from chromosomes 4,11 and the SNPs from the other chromosomes. We selected chromosomes 4 and 11 because they contained QTLs for foliar severity 3 and 6 MAP. Multikernel GBLUP predictions were made with the function emmremlMultiKernel in the R package EMMREML (Akdemir and Okeke, 2015) Introgression Segment Detection To identify the genome segments in our germplasm, we followed the approach of Bredeson et al. (2015). We used the M. glaziovii diagnostic markers identified Supplementary Dataset 2 of Bredeson et al. (2015). These ancestry diagnostic (AI) SNPs were identified as being fixed for different alleles in a sample of two pure M. esculenta (Albert and CM33064) and two pure M. glaziovii (GLA XXX-8 and M. glaziovii(S)). Out of 173,647 SNP in our imputed dataset, 12,502 matched published AI SNPs. For these AI SNPs, we divided each chromosome into non-overlapping windows of 20 SNP. Within each window, for each individual, we calculated the proportion of genotypes that were homozygous (G/G) or heterozygous (G/E) for M. glaziovii allele and the proportion that were homozygous for the M. esculenta allele (E/E). We assigned G/G, G/E or E/E ancestry to each window, for each individual only when the proportion of the most common genotype in that window was at least twice the proportion of the second most common genotype. We assigned windows a No Call status otherwise. We also used this approach on six whole-genome sequenced samples from the cassava HapMap II (Punna et al. under Review). These included the two pure cassava and M. glaziovii(S) from Bredeson et al. (2015), plus an additional M. glaziovii, and two samples labeled Namikonga. Because these samples came from a different source from the majority of our samples, we were able to find only 11,686 SNPs that matched both the sites in the rest of our study sample and the list of ancestry informative sites for analysis. Linkage disequilibrium plots LD scores were calculated for every SNP in chromosome 4 with a window of 1Mb using the GCTA Software (Yang et al., 2011). Briefly, LD score for a given marker is the sum of R2 adjusted between the index marker and all markers within a specified window. The adjusted R2 is an unbiased measure of LD: where n is the population size and R2 is the usual estimator of the squared Pearsons correlation (Bulik-Sullivan et al 2015). We calculated the LD between that marker and other markers in a window of 2Mb (1Mb upstream and 1Mb downstream) For the top significant SNP hit in chromosome 11 for the 6MAP GWAS result from panel 1 and panel 2. The LD was evaluated using squared Pearsons correlation coefficient (r2) as calculated with the à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢r2 -ld-snp commands in the software PLINK version 1.9. Candidate gene identification To identify candidate genes for CBSD severity in leaves and CBSD root necrosis we used the GCTA mlma GWAS output obtained for each trait. We filtered the SNP markers based on -log10 (P-value)> Bonf, being these values higher than the Bonferroni threshold (~ 5.9). The resulting SNP markers were assigned onto genes using the SNP location and gene description from the Mesculenta_305_v6.1.gene.gff3 available in Phytozome 11 (ref) for Manihot esculenta v6.1 using the intersect function from bedtools (ref). RESULTS Phenotypic assessment of cassava for sensitivity to cassava brown streak virus infection Most clones showed varied responses to CBSV infection spanning from super susceptibility that represented candle-like die-back of the shoot to tolerance (Fig.). Foliar phenotyping clumped these plant responses into five major classes based on a 1 to 5 scale. The broad sense heritability of the studied traits ranged 0.17 to 0.72 for both GWAS panels (Table 1). Analysis of the phenotypic data showed very significant GxE interactions (P Genetic correlations and heritability estimates We found moderate heritability estimates for CBSV sensitivity for foliar phenotypes at 3, 6 and 9 MAP as well as root phenotypes under five environments (fig..) . Genetic correlation on the traits assayed were performed and revealed that ranged from moderate to high positive correlations among traits studied. Assessment of linkage disequilibrium Genome-wide association mapping often explores the benefit of existence of several historic recombination events over time to associate observed phenotypic variation with genome. Detection of candidate QTLs for CBSV sensitivity in cassava To efficiently a run GWAS, we used SNP data to examine the extent of genetic interrelatedness and sub-population structure of the cassava clones. A principal component analysis (PCA) to account for structure showed no distinct clusters implying that the selected clones were not highly structured (Fig.1). Therefore, we did not include PCs in our GWAS linear modal analysis. The Bonferroni suggestive threshold (ÃŽÂ ± = 0.05) was used to identify loci associated to CBSV sensitivity on both chromosome 4 and 11 that had clear peak signals at the different stages of phenotyping (Fig. 2). The observed P-values initially aligned well with the expected P-values but later differed substantially due the large introgression block on chromosome 4 presumably from the wild progenitors of cassava traceable from the AMANI breeding program (Jennings, 1959). The significant signals on chromosome 11 contained loci with strong association with CBSV sensitivity in a 2 Mb region that annotated well with several candidate genes. Genome-wide prediction for CBSV sensitivity in cassava We did genome wide prediction for CBSV sensitivity based on the identified SNPs with the highest effects found on both chromosome 4 and 11 in order to capture most of the genetic variation. We explored several genomic prediction model methods; GBLUP, RR-BLUP, B-LASSO, random forest, BayesA, BayesB, and BayesC. References Akdemir, D. and Okeke, U. G. (2015) EMMREML: Fitting Mixed Models with Known Covariance Structures,. Alicai, T., Ndunguru, J., Sseruwagi, P., Tairo, F., Okao-Okuja, G., Nanvubya, R., Kiiza, L., Kubatko, L., Kehoe, M. A. and Boykin, L. M. (2016a) Characterization by Next Generation Sequencing Reveals the Molecular Mechanisms Driving the Faster Evolutionary rate of Cassava brown streak virus Compared with Ugandan cassava brown streak virus, bioRxiv, Cold Spring Harbor Labs Journals, [online] Available at: http://biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/053546 (Accessed 27 June 2016). Alicai, T., Ndunguru, J., Sseruwagi, P., Tairo, F., Okao-Okuja, G., Nanvubya, R., Kiiza, L., Kubatko, L., Kehoe, M. A. and Boykin, L. M. (2016b) Characterization by Next Generation Sequencing Reveals the Molecular Mechanisms Driving the Faster Evolutionary rate of Cassava brown streak virus Compared with Ugandan cassava brown streak virus, [online] Available at: http://biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/053546 (Accessed 10 June 2016). ASARECA: (2013) ASARECA Annual Report 2012: Transforming Agriculture for Economic Growth in Eastern and Central Africa, Entebbe, Uganda. Bredeson, J. V, Lyons, J. B., Prochnik, S. E., Wu, G. A., Ha, C. M., Edsinger-Gonzales, E., Grimwood, J., Schmutz, J., Rabbi, I. Y., Egesi, C., Nauluvula, P., Lebot, V., Ndunguru, J., Mkamilo, G., Bart, R. S., Setter, T. L., Gleadow, R. M., Kulakow, P., Ferguson, M. E., Rounsley, S. and Rokhsar, D. S. (2016) Sequencing wild and cultivated cassava and related species reveals extensive interspecific hybridization and genetic diversity., Nature biotechnology, 34(5), pp. 562-570, [online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt.3535. Browning, B. L. and Browning, S. R. (2016) Genotype Imputation with Millions of Reference Samples, The American Journal of Human Genetics, 98(1), pp. 116-126. Ceballos, H., Kawuki, R. S., Gracen, V. E., Yencho, G. C. and Hershey, C. H. (2015) Conventional breeding, marker-assisted selection, genomic selection and inbreeding in clonally propagated crops: a case study for cassava, Theoretical and Applied Genetics, [online] Available at: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00122-015-2555-4 (Accessed 25 June 2015). Endelman, J. B. (2011) Ridge Regression and Other Kernels for Genomic Selection with R Package rrBLUP, The Plant Genome Journal, 4(3), pp. 250-255. Federer, W. T. and Crossa, J. (2012) Screening Experimental Designs for Quantitative Trait Loci, Association Mapping, Genotype-by Environment Interaction, and Other Investigations, Frontiers in Physiology, 3, [online] Available at: http://www.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fphys.2012.00156/full (Accessed 2 September 2014). Federer, W. T., Nguyen, N.-K. and others (2002) Constructing Augmented Experiment Designs with Gendex, [online] Available at: https://dspace.library.cornell.edu/handle/1813/32208 (Accessed 2 September 2014). Ferguson, M., Rabbi, I., Kim, D.-J., Gedil, M., Lopez-Lavalle, L. A. B. and Okogbenin, E. (2012) Molecular Markers and Their Application to Cassava Breeding: Past, Present and Future, Tropical Plant Biology, 5(1), pp. 95-109, [online] Available at: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12042-011-9087-0 (Accessed 5 August 2014). Habier, D., Fernando, R. L., Kizilkaya, K. and Garrick, D. J. (2011) Extension of the bayesian alphabet for genomic selection., BMC bioinformatics, BioMed Central Ltd, 12(1), p. 186. Hamblin, M. T., Buckler, E. S. and Jannink, J.-L. (2011) Population genetics of genomics-based crop improvement methods, Trends in Genetics, 27(3), pp. 98-106, [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168952510002301 (Accessed 18 April 2014). Hillocks, R. J. and Jennings, D. L. (2003) Cassava brown streak disease: a review of present knowledge and research needs, International Journal of Pest Management, 49(3), pp. 225-234, [online] Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0967087031000101061 (Accessed 5 February 2014). Jannink, J.-L. and Walsh, B. (2002) Association mapping in plant populations, Quantitative genetics, genomics and plant breeding, pp. 59-68, [online] Available at: http://books.google.com/books?hl=enlr=id=hMBY_MvS39ACoi=fndpg=PA59dq=%22of+meioses+that+have+occurred+and+(in+the+case+of+advanced+intercross+lines)%22+%22discussion+of+rigorous+methods+to+test+for+marker+association+with+a+quantitative%22+ots=wo7fd. Jennings, D. L. (1959) Manihot melanobasis Mà ¼ll. Arg.-a useful parent for cassava breeding, Euphytica, 8(2), pp. 157-162, [online] Available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00022435 (Accessed 8 October 2014). Kulembeka, H. P. (2010) Genetic linkage mapping of Field Resistance to cassava brown streak Disease in cassava landraces from Tanzania, Doctoral thesis, University of the Free State. Legg, J. P., Sseruwagi, P., Boniface, S., Okao-Okuja, G., Shirima, R., Bigirimana, S., Gashaka, G., Herrmann, H. W., Jeremiah, S., Obiero, H., Ndyetabula, I., Tata-Hangy, W., Masembe, C. and Brown, J. K. (2014) Spatio-temporal patterns of genetic change amongst populations of cassava Bemisia tabaci whiteflies driving virus pandemics in East and Central Africa, Virus Research, Elsevier B.V., 186, pp. 61-75, [online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2013.11.018. McQuaid, C. F., Sseruwagi, P., Pariyo, A. and van den Bosch, F. (2015) Cassava brown streak disease and the sustainability of a clean seed system, Plant Pathology, p. n/a-n/a, [online] Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/ppa.12453 (Accessed 17 September 2015). Meuwissen, T. H., Hayes, B. J. and Goddard, M. E. (2001) Prediction of total genetic value using genome-wide dense marker maps., Genetics, 157(4), pp. 1819-29. Munga, T. L. (2008) Breeding for Cassava Brown Streak Resistance in Coastal Kenya, Doctoral thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal Republic of South Africa. Ndunguru, J., Sseruwagi, P., Tairo, F., Stomeo, F., Maina, S., Djinkeng, A., Kehoe, M. and Boykin, L. M. (2015) Analyses of Twelve New Whole Genome Sequences of Cassava Brown Streak Viruses and Ugandan Cassava Brown Streak Viruses from East Africa: Diversity, Supercomputing and Evidence for Further Speciation, PloS one, 10(10), p. e0139321, [online] Available at: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0139321 (Accessed 18 March 2016). Nichols, R. F. W. (1947) Breeding cassava for virus resistance., East African Agricultural Journal, 12, pp. 184-94, [online] Available at: http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19471600996.html (Accessed 5 February 2014). Park, T. and Casella, G. (2008) The Bayesian Lasso, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 103(482), pp. 681-686. Pà ©rez, J. C., Lenis, J. I., Calle, F., Morante, N., Sà ¡nchez, T., Debouck, D. and Ceballos, H. (2011) Genetic variability of root peel thickness and its influence in extractable starch from cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) roots, Plant Breeding, 130(6), pp. 688-693. Pà ©rez, P. and De Los Campos, G. (2014)

Point of View in Amy Tan’s Short Story, Two Kinds Essay -- Two Kinds, A

Point of View in Amy Tan’s Short Story, Two Kinds In her short story "Two Kinds," Amy Tan utilizes the daughter's point of view to share a mother's attempts to control her daughter's hopes and dreams, providing a further understanding of how their relationship sours. The daughter has grown into a young woman and is telling the story of her coming of age in a family that had emigrated from China. In particular, she tells that her mother's attempted parental guidance was dominated by foolish hopes and dreams. This double perspective allows both the naivety of a young girl trying to identify herself and the hindsight and judgment of a mature woman. "Two Kinds" is a powerful example of differing personalities causing struggles between parent and child. In every parent-child relationship, there are occurrences in which the parent places expectations on the child. Some children fall victim to a parent trying too hard or placing expectations too high, or, in the case of "Two Kinds," a parent trying to live her life through that of her child. However, the mother is also a victim in that she succumbs to her own foolish dream that "you could be anything you wanted to be in America." Knowing that her own time has passed, she wants her daughter to succeed by any means necessary, but she never stops to think of what her daughter might want. She strictly adheres to her plan, and her overbearing parenting only leaves the daughter with feelings of disapproval and questions of self-worth. The mother does not realize the controversy that she creates, and she cannot understand that her actions could be wrong. She also does not realize tha t she is hurting not only her daughter, but also the relationship that should bind the two of them ... ...by the wrong person. Only after the death of her mother can she let her guilt override her pride. Only after the death of her mother, when she can act on her own accord and not please her mother, does she truly play the piano. Their conflict has gone unsolved, and the mother has died believing that she was a failure as a parent. Throughout the daughter's childhood, both are trapped in their own selfish illusions. Their personalities clash, and neither is willing to compromise. It is unfortunate that neither can realize the extent to which they have damaged themselves individually and jointly. They are fundamentally the same, but, blinded by tenacity, neither realizes that "they are two halves of the same song." Works Cited Tan, Amy. "Two Kinds". Literature, Reading Reacting,Writing. 5th ed. Ed. Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell. Boston: Heinle, 2004.

The Minimum Wage Should Not Be Increased :: Minimum Wage Essays

Although many Americans believe an increase in the minimum wage is always a positive step for the federal government to take, the most recent wage hike could result in some harmful effects. One group potentially hurt by the increased minimum wage is teen-aged workers. Four hundred and eighty thousand teen jobs have been lost due to Congress putting the wage hike into place in 2007 (New Ad Campaign). In 2008, the months June through August, only 32.7 percent of teens had jobs. This is down from 45 percent in June through August 2000, stated by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (Petrecca). In the last 17 years unemployment for American teens has increased a great amount. Presently the unemployment rate is at 24 percent. In one year alone that percent has increased nearly 12 percent. Other ethnicities, such as African Americans, are also feeling the effects of unemployment. Currently the unemployment rate for African American teens is 37.9 percent; that’s four times the National average. These groups of African American teens have been hit the hardest with the unemployment rate increasing 27 percent in one year. According to Kristen Lopez Eastlick, Seni or Research Analyst for the Employment Policies Institute, â€Å"The unintended consequence of the federal minimum wage hike is pricing some employees out of the workforce, and based on the recent unemployment data, it’s teens-minority teens especially-who are getting hit the hardest† (Are Summer Jobs). John Silva, chief economist at Wells Fargo said, â€Å"It’s tough timing†, he anticipates that teenagers and those who are less qualified will have the hardest time finding work. â€Å"You’re going to have a very negative response. In a recession like this, companies don’t have the pricing power to pass on those costs† (Maher). Congress increasing minimum wage was meant to help those people who are getting paid right at the minimum wage level. But, if people can’t even get a job that pays minimum wage then the new law is hurting more than it’s helping. Works Cited â€Å"Are Summer Jobs ‘Going Out of Business?† Science Letter 21 July 2009: 2887.

Globalization: the Making of World Society – Book Review

Running Head: GLOBALIZATION: The Making of World Society Review Essay: Globalization: The Making of World Society Part One: Summary Introduction Since the industrial revolution, the structure of world has been constantly evolving and progressing. The spread has involved the interlacing of economic and cultural activity, connectedness of the production, communication and technologies around the world, and it is now known as – globalization. The book I chose for this particular essay is Frank J.Lechner’s, Globalization: the Making of World Society first published in 2009. Author Frank J. Lechner was born in 1958 in Amsterdam, Netherlands and is the director of Graduate Studies & Professor Department of Sociology at the Emory University in Atlanta. In 1982 he earned his Master in Arts degree in Sociology at the University of Pittsburgh followed by a Ph. D. in 1985 in sociology as well. Most of his focus lies in global culture, change, religion and theory. One of his most r ecent researches involved national identity, specifically concerning the Dutch.In addition to publishing Globalization:  The Making of World Society  (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), Lechner is the author  The Netherlands: National Identity and Globalization  (2008), and  World Culture: Origins and Consequences  (with John Boli, Wiley-Blackwell, 2005), as well as numerous papers on religion and sociological theory. Book Summary In Globalization: The Making of World Society, Lechner talks about the processes that unfold in a wide range of fields such as sports, media, food industry, global economy, environment and religion due to globalization.He describes its effects on everyday experience all around the world and demonstrates how globalization is also generating new discourses, cultures, and state policies. He explains globalization as a part of a still-greater transformation, both technical and social. Lechner wrote this book and divided it into three main parts: Global Experi ence, Global Institutions, and Global Problems. Each of these three parts is further divided into few more sub-topics such as for example, food, sports and media in Part I.In the first part of the book, the author describes the three â€Å"waves† of food globalization around the world. The first â€Å"wave†, he describes as a â€Å"wave† in which Jamaica became a â€Å"sugar island† at the centre of the global network. The wave started not with a desire for sugar but with a search for spices. Many European explorers lured into travel by the prospect of finding gold and silver and were able to not only bring precious metals home but have brought tomatoes and potatoes to the European diet.Another part of the first wave that the author talks about is when the Portuguese reached China and introduced maize, sweet potatoes and peanuts which later helped to sustain China’s population boom. With the first wave of globalization, more people became globally connected in more ways than ever before. People in different parts of the world were able to taste foods from other continents. As the new links in globalization were beginning to become established, they benefited some and harmed many others. Early globalization thus began to create a global hierarchy.The second â€Å"wave† which dissipated in the early twentieth century is described as the time in which the Dakotas became the bread basket of the world. Also, large parts of Canada, Argentina and Australia became a source of food and profit and by 1913 they produced more wheat than all of Europe. As globalization continued to spread, a global food system emerged, tying all producers into a network of interdependence. The world market created enormous wealth and leading nations, tied together through free trade, strove to safeguard their power by extending their imperial reach.The third â€Å"wave† of globalization was called â€Å"McDonald’s in East Asia. † In this section of the book Lechner talks about how with globalization nothing stays exotic as it standardizes experience through organized diffusion. Although the third wave incorporates a lot of what the first and the second waves started, it is unique in the aspect that a fast food restaurant such as McDonald’s could be everywhere, yet nowhere in particular, as it helps deterritorialize eating itself – a step beyond both first and second waves f globalization. Furthermore, in the section on sports and the direction of globalization the writer describes the way sports and in particular soccer, has grown from the homeland of England to a worldwide game with the same rules. He explains that globalization does not mean that global rules, organizations, or models just take over. The global connections of the world society do not substitute for local ties such as American football in US, rather they move in tandem.It is clear that in sports, globalization occurs in and through local and national settings as it adds another layer of connections and a new kind of shared awareness to the people in a certain society. In the last sub-category on global media, Frank Lechner talks about the role of Indian television, patterns in global television, and interpretations for global television as well as cultural imperialism. He describes the way the rights for television shows and programs such as â€Å"Who wants to be a Millionaire? † have been sold to well over 80 countries and have enjoyed great success worldwide.Many commercials and advertisements on TV carry subliminal messages that are aimed for a certain audience with a high degree of studying being put forward into the creation of the â€Å"perfect commercial†. In Part II of the novel the author begins to unravel the complicated and sometimes confusing aspects of the world economy. He begins with describing the way China, a country with extraordinary size and history, transformed and r ebuilt itself after World War II at a time when broader reforms were sweeping the world hierarchy.He goes on to explain America’s three main goals in the post-war time: to make trade flow much more freely, to stabilize the world’s financial system, and to encourage international investment. Moreover, Lechner describes the significance of Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Germany in the late nineteenth century, and his role in introduction of accident insurance bills and health care bills in Germany which marked the beginning of rise of welfare states. He also outlines Roosevelt’s and Veldkamp’s positions and their contribution in Britain and Netherlands respectively.Frank Lechner continues with talking about the way in which globalization creates a political opportunity for the left-leaning political parties, promising to ride to the rescue in a time when some argue that globalization dampens welfare nations, to rather strengthen these states. Another aspe ct of globalization discussed in this part of the book is education. Education plays a key role in today’s society and with many people travelling with their high school kids to the United States and Canada in order to have a higher chance for a university or college admission, proves that in higher education a global market already operates.The next section of the second part of the book briefly describes global civil society and global governance. United Nations, according to the author, has taken on â€Å"a larger law-making role than its founders had envisioned†. The direction of change proposed by such an institution does not always have the full consensus of relevant states in an issue, yet that change is toward more organization of certain fields above and beyond states. Part III of Globalization: The Making of World Society strictly focuses on global concerns.The author describes key issues such as global migration, inequality, environment, and justice. First o f the four issues listed is migration. The third wave of globalization witnessed a rise in migration, mainly from south to north along the gradient formed by global inequality. In this section of the book Lechner touches on the issue of redefining the national identity of a country as it is a goal in certain countries, which also links back to his previous two books:   The Netherlands: National Identity and Globalization  (2008), and  World Culture: Origins and Consequences  (with John Boli, Wiley-Blackwell, 2005).The second issue at hand in this section of his book is global inequality. In this section of the book the writer explains that globalization is essential for countries in the â€Å"bottom billion† to catch up, yet there is no single success path for all of the poorest nations. In this chapter he clearly paints his main argument that â€Å"globalization is not bound to make the rich richer and the poor poorer,† and goes on to say, â€Å"but if it is to lead to a more tangible ‘world society’, it will have to help reduce poverty and inequality far more† (Lechner, 241).The last two section of the book primarily touch on the effects of globalization and its interconnectedness with global environment and global justice. Lechner discusses environmentalism and the way countries such as China deal with the environment and society in a balanced way. He put forward an example of Three Gorges damn built in China which displaced 2 million Chinese people, created a reservoir of nearly 400 miles and supplies 20 times more energy than America’s Hoover Dam. as an example of what a county could do in order to decrease the environmental damage, yet at the same time take a risk of displacing 2 million residents of the area. Literature Comparison Globalization: The Making of World Society by Frank Lechner is his attempt to clarify the key issues surrounding globalization in a brief, accessible and critical analysis of a complex topic. From the research conducted, I it is safe to conclude that this book is not a reply to any other book proposed by other writers; rather it is his attempt to explain his point of view on globalization and issues proposed by it.Yet the author explaining his point of view represents one side of a bigger argument about globalization’s effect on the world, but no clear intentions of proving a point to a specific person or institution has been noted. Main Argument(s) The main argument proposed by Frank Lechner is that although there are many issues around globalization as a whole, he believes that globalization is essential for the poorest nations to catch up. He is keen on his point of view, and thus goes on to explain that development is the only way to reduce economic inequality.Another part of his argument is that â€Å"globalization is not bound to make the rich richer and the poor poorer†¦but if it is to lead to a more tangible ‘world societyâ€℠¢, it will have to help reduce poverty and inequality far more† (Lechner, 241). Part Two: Critical Analysis Personal Opinion After analyzing Lechner’s work, there are too many factors that make an accurate prediction difficult. The industrial revolution and the global expansion that it created, is on a scale that has never been seen in history. As a result, new issues are created, while old issues are modified.The interdependencies between nations revolve around a free market. This encourages exploitation as a method to produce capital. The astronomical growth of supply and demand puts a heavy toll on the environment and its resources, which leads to an inevitable carrying capacity. The gap between rich and poor continues to increase around the world including capitalist drivers such as Canada and United States. Although Lechner does not see globalization as the main force in the inequality gap, I believe that this issue is of great concern.In order to have a more objec tive opinion of globalization, we need to analyze the detrimental factors and the potential they have in slowing down or even reversing the constructive effects of globalization. When taking these factors into consideration, they become latent by the profits created. There is a growing concern with enormous amount of evidence of corruption happening in most developing, third world nations. Bribery enables transnational companies to gain export contracts, particularly in the arms trade and in construction, which they would not have otherwise won.Every year, Western companies pay huge amounts of money in bribes to the officials and rulers in the developing countries in order to win over competitors. As these bribes go through, they have unfavourable results on the developing country, as they disadvantage smaller domestic firms, weaken development and deteriorate inequality and poverty, distort decision-making in favour of the project that benefits few rather than many, increase nation al debt, benefit the investor not the country, as well as damage the environment.All of the factors listed above are proof of negative effects of corruption on successful globalization, which according to Lechner, â€Å"is not bound to make the rich richer and the poor poorer† (Lechner, 241). The second issue I would like to address is the growing gap between the rich and poor in not only developing countries, but the capitalist hubs. According to the latest consensus data released on May 1, 2008 by Statistics Canada, â€Å"between 1980 and 2005, median earning among Canada’s top earners rose more than 16 percent while those in the bottom fifth saw their wages dip by 20 percent (The Canadian Press, 2008).Furthermore, the  gap between rich and poor  is widening, both within and among countries. In 1960, the richest 20 percent of the world’s population controlled 70 percent of global income, yet by 1993, the â€Å"richest 20† controlled 85 percent. In the same time period, the share of the poorest 20 percent had decreased from 2. 3 to 1. 4 percent. These disparities are likely to increase for the next half century as above stated issues such as corruption continue to affect the developing world (Human Development Report, 1996).The third big issue at hand, which I believe causes globalization to have a negative outlook in the eyes of the proletarian individuals including me, is the environmental damages that are caused. Economic theory argues that the free market can be expected to produce an efficient and improved level of resource use, production, consumption, and environment protection, yet when private costs, which are the foundation for market decision, diverge from social costs, a market failure occurs resulting in pollution levels. Intensified trade and competitiveness pressures between companies generate harmful impacts on environmental quality (Esty, D. nd Ivanova, M. ). As the big name companies move into an immature eco nomy of a developing country, they have the power to make the government change the laws and reduce their previous environmental requirements. Thus, the company that cannot function in Canada or Germany with those amounts of emission without paying fines will use the developing country’s position to produce high level of emissions with no restrictions. This point links back to the issue of corruption in the developing countries described earlier.In addition, local government must protect the environment by not letting giant companies take over and control the government in order to make huge profits. Likewise, economic agreements that do not promote the common good and that are designed to increase the profits of few people in the world should be rejected by the authorities, if not local, then global. In conclusion, Globalization: The Making of World Society by Frank Lechner describes how the processes of globalization unfold in a wide range of fields including sports, religi on, media, and the environment.The author tries to explain and analyze the complex subject of globalization in a concise and easy-to-understand manner. His main argument in the book surrounds the explanation of how he believes that globalization is essential for the poorest nations to catch up and that globalization is not bound to make the rich richer and the poor poorer. References Dauvergn, P. (n. d. ). Globalization and the environment. Esty, D. C. C. , & Ivanova, M. H. (2003). Globalization effects on the environment. Globalization nd Environmental Protection: a Global Governance Perspective. Retrieved November 20, 2011 from http://www. yale. edu/gegdialogue/docs/dialogue/oct03/papers/Esty-Ivanova. pdf Lechner, F. J. (2009). Globalization: The Making of the World Society. Hong Kong: Wiley- Blackwell Publication. Research and markets; globalization: The making of world society. (2009). Investment Weekly News,  (19458177), 423. Retrieved from http://ezproxy. qa. proquest. com/d ocview/ 200892079? accountid=14771 Shah, A. (2011). Corruption.Global Issues. Retrieved November 21, 2011, from http://www. globalissues. org/article/590/corruption#GlobalizationMultinational CorporationsandCorruption The Canadian Press. (2008, May 1). Rich get richer, poor get poorer, census results show. Retrieved November 21, 2011, from http://www. ctv. ca/CTVNews/Canada/ 20080501/rich_poor_080501/ The gap between rich and poor is widening. (2004). World Resource Institute. Retrieved November 19,2011 from http://www. wri. org/publication/content/8659